Title

Author

Genre

Pages

487-528

DOI

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Language

Chinese

Key words

Emperor Shun of Han 漢順帝, Yongjian 永建, direct remonstration, ruler-minister relations, Confucian bureaucrats

Abstract

This article argues that the rise of direct remonstration in the Eastern Han dynasty began with the protest movements following Emperor An’s 安帝 (r. 106-125) assumption of personal rule. By the Yongjian 永建 period (126-131), as the empress dowager did not assume control and eunuch power rapidly declined, Confucian bureaucrats took advantage of the temporary power vacuum to establish a joint governance with Emperor Shun 順 帝 (r. 125-144), actively promoting direct remonstration.

However, during the Yangjia 陽 嘉 period (132-135), as Emperor Shun increasingly relied on eunuchs and consorts, the joint governance structure weakened. Confucian officials’ remonstrations shifted to criticizing Shun’s favoritism towards sycophants, increasingly diminishing the emperor’s authority, which led to rising tensions and set the stage for later collective condemnation during Emperor Huan’s 桓 帝 reign (146-168).

Confucian bureaucrats viewed direct remonstration as a sign of loyalty, as a way to distinguish between virtuous and corrupt officials. This indicates that the self-awareness and collective identity of Confucian scholar-officials had already started to emerge as early as the Yongjian era. Thus, the Yongjian and Yangjia eras under Emperor Shun represent a critical period of transformation in the political culture of the Eastern Han dynasty.